Lithium
Lithium has been listed as one of the critical or nearcritical elements in various recent studies based largely on its importance in green technologies. It was one of the 15 mineral commodities studied by participating countries in the International Strategic Minerals Inventory (ISMI) of the 1980s and 1990s (Anstett and others, 1990). The National Research Council (2008) concluded that lithium, although not critical at the time of the 2008 assessment, could potentially become critical depending on the level of growth of new uses, such as hybrid vehicle batteries. In the U.S. Department of Energy’s Critical Materials Strategy (2010), lithium is included as 1 of 16 key elements. The 2011 joint report of the American Physical Society Panel on Public Affairs and the Materials Research Society on energy-critical minerals included lithium as 1 of 29 key elements for green technology.
Uses and Applications:
Lithium has many uses. Worldwide lithium consumption in 2013 by end use was estimated to be as follows ): ceramics and glass, 35 percent; rechargeable batteries, 29 percent; lubricating greases, 8 percent; continuous casting mold flux powders, 6 percent; air treatment, 5 percent; and polymer production, 5 percent; primary batteries, 2 percent; primary aluminum production, 1 percent; and other uses, 9 percent (Merriman, 2014).
Ceramics and glass are expected to continue to be the leading end uses for lithium for years to come. In glassmaking (Garrett, 2004), lithium makes the process more economical by reducing the melting point and decreasing viscosity.
The addition of 0.1 to 4 percent lithium oxide (Li2 O), to various glasses increases hardness and reduces thermal expansion. A common application is in glass stovetops; where ordinary window-glass would shatter, lithium-bearing glass can withstand large temperature swings and rough use. In the ceramics industry, lithium is used to make porcelain enamels, glazes, and tiles; as in glassmaking, a small amount of lithium lowers the melting temperature and reduces thermal expansion in the resulting ceramic product (Garrett, 2004).
Production of batteries, which currently rank second among the end uses of lithium, will likely see increased production in the next few years as the production of electric and hybrid vehicles increases. Production will result in increased capacity utilization of the vehicle battery plants that are currently being built worldwide. Battery manufacturing has the largest growth potential of any sector of the lithium industry; several major automobile companies are developing lithium-ion batteries (fig. K3H). Demand for rechargeable lithium batteries now exceeds that of rechargeable nonlithium batteries for use in cellular telephones, cordless tools, MP3 players, and portable computers and tablets. Nonrechargeable lithium batteries are used in calculators, cameras, and watches (Jaskula, 2013).
Other uses of lithium are not widely appreciated by consumers. Lithium is a minor but key ingredient in the electrolytic refining of aluminum. Lightweight lithium-aluminum alloys have applications in the aerospace industry. For example, the fuel tank of the NASA space shuttles used an aluminumlithium alloy (Garrett, 2004). Lithium, as lithium stearate or similar compounds, is widely used as a high-performance lubricant in automotive, aircraft, industrial, marine, and military applications (Garrett, 2004). As of 1993, 60 percent of all industrial lubricants contained lithium, typically at concentrations of 1 to 2 percent. Lithium chloride and bromide are among the best available substances for absorbing water; thus, these salts are used in air conditioning systems to reduce humidity while simultaneously cooling the air. Since the 1940s, pharmaceuticals containing lithium compounds have been used to control bipolar disorder. Finally, the lighter of two lithium isotopes, 6 Li, was used in the production of tritium (3 H) after World War II by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission and later by the U.S. Department of Energy in the production of nuclear weapons (Garrett, 2004).
Lithium is traded in three forms: mineral concentrates, mineral compounds, and refined metal. Lithium minerals— mainly spodumene, petalite, and lepidolite—are mined from pegmatites and are used mostly as feedstock for glasses and ceramics. Most lithium compounds (for example, lithium carbonate, lithium chloride, and lithium hydroxide) are obtained from brines. Lithium metal (fig. K3G) is obtained by electrolysis from lithium chloride.
The prices of lithium metal and lithium compounds are not published; however, approximate values can be gleaned from a variety of industry sources. Battery-grade lithium carbonate is currently valued at between $6,500 and $7,000 per metric ton. In 2010, Japan imported lithium metal valued at $33.36 per pound, or $73,546 per metric ton.
Lithium is the element of choice in the various applications listed above. Substitutes do exist, however, in batteries, ceramics, greases, and manufactured glass. For example, calcium and aluminum soaps can substitute for stearates in greases; calcium, magnesium, mercury, and zinc can be used as anode materials in batteries; sodic and potassic fluxes can substitute for lithium in ceramics and glass manufacturing; and composite materials of boron, glass, or polymer fibers can be used in place of aluminum-lithium alloys (Jaskula, 2013).
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